Introduction to Metabolism. Energy Sources and Food Components. Satiety, Hunger, Prolonged Starvation.

1. Energy sources and food components.
2. Catabolism and anabolism.
3. Nutritional status of the body. Satiety, hunger, and prolonged starvation.
4. Diseases caused by metabolic disorders: rickets, spasmophilia.

Acids, Bases, Buffers. Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds.

1. Buffer systems and their significance in the body. Homeostasis.
2. Structure of amino acids and their classification.
3. Introduction to protein structure and formation of peptide bonds.
4. Diseases associated with disturbances in blood acidity and alkalinity (acidosis and alkalosis).

Protein Structure. Enzyme.

1. General features of protein structure.
2. Structure of hemoglobin and its significance in the body.
3. Structure of enzymes and their role in the body.
4. Diabetes mellitus.

Vitamins and Electron Carriers. Biological Oxidation.

1. Water-soluble vitamins.
2. Fat-soluble vitamins.
3. Macro-elements.
4. Micro- and ultra-trace elements.

General Pathways of Catabolism. Glycolysis and Regulation of Glycolysis.

1. General overview of carbohydrates.
2. Catabolism of glucose: entry of glucose into the cell and its retention.
3. Steps of glycolysis and its connection with other metabolic processes.
4. Glycogen metabolism. Krebs cycle.

Gluconeogenesis, Metabolism of Fructose and Galactose. Pentose Phosphate Pathway.

1. The process of gluconeogenesis and its significance in the body.
2. Metabolism of fructose and metabolism of galactose.
3. Reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway. Importance of the pentose phosphate pathway in metabolism.
4. Hereditary fructose intolerance, galactosemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, hemolytic anemia.

Structure of Lipids and Membranes. Function and Metabolism of Lipids: Synthesis of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols. Fatty Acid Oxidation. Synthesis and Utilization of Ketone Bodies.

1. Metabolism of fatty acids and lipids.
2. Composition and structure of lipoproteins.
3. Fatty acid metabolism: storage, mobilization, and utilization.
4. General characteristics of phospholipids.

Protein Digestion and Amino Acid Absorption. Deamination, Transamination. Protein Biosynthesis, Protein Polymorphism, Genetic Engineering.

1. Protein digestion and amino acid absorption. Protein breakdown in the intestine and neutralization of degradation products.
2. Protein biosynthesis and the genetic code. Inhibitors of template-based biosynthesis processes.
3. Metabolism of purines and pyrimidines.
4. The cell cycle.
5. Development of tumor cells.

Biochemistry of Blood and the Lymphatic-Reticular System. Hormone Synthesis. General Mechanism of Hormone Action.

1. Main functions and chemical composition of blood.
2. Plasma proteins. Blood enzymes.
3. Heme biosynthesis. Iron metabolism.
4. Blood diseases: anemias, porphyrias, hemophilia.

Biochemistry of Connective Tissue. Biochemistry of the Heart and Circulatory System.

1. Collagen: features of amino acid composition, primary and spatial structure, biosynthesis.
2. Elastin: its structure, synthesis, and catabolism. Glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans.
3. Biochemical mechanisms of muscle contraction and relaxation.
4. Early and late biochemical diagnosis of myocardial infarction.

Biochemistry of the Gastrointestinal Tract.

1. Secretory products of the salivary glands, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and liver, as well as their metabolic and regulatory processes.
2. Synthetic and metabolic functions of the liver, gallbladder, and biliary tract. The role of the liver in carbohydrate, fat, and amino acid metabolism.
3. Synthesis of plasma proteins in the liver. Bilirubin detoxification. “Direct” and “indirect” bilirubin. Jaundice and its laboratory diagnosis.
4. Biochemical basis of the development and treatment of acute pancreatitis.

Biochemistry of the Endocrine System.

1. Hierarchy of control systems.
2. Metabolism and its levels of regulation.
3. Relationship between the endocrine and nervous systems.
4. Hereditary/congenital metabolic disorders (e.g., adrenal hyperplasia, diabetes mellitus).

Bioenergetics. Properties of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). Vitamins and Electron Carriers.  

1. Concept of bioenergetics.
2. Changes in free energy in biological systems.
3. Classification of vitamins.
4. Water-soluble vitamins.
5. Fat-soluble vitamins.
6. Diseases associated with vitamin deficiencies (scurvy, rickets, beriberi).

General Pathways of Catabolism. Pyruvate Metabolism and Biological Oxidation.  

1. Structure of mitochondria and their role in glycolysis.
2. Krebs cycle.
3. Tissue respiration.
4. Terminal oxidation: ubiquinone, cytochromes. Cytochrome oxidase.
5. Electron carriers.

Structure of Carbohydrates, Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycolipids.  

1. General overview of carbohydrates.
2. Types of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides).
3. Proteoglycans: definition and structure.
4. Role of glycolipids in cell membranes and their function in transport and signal transduction.

Carbohydrate Metabolism and Its Functions. Structure of Glycogen. Glycogen Storage Diseases.  

1. Main dietary carbohydrates.
2. Disorders of carbohydrate digestion and absorption, constipation, and inability to digest milk.
3. Synthesis and breakdown of glycogen, its physiological significance, role of glucokinase and hexokinase.
4. Structure of glycogen, its synthesis, and significance in the body.
5. Glycogen storage diseases (glycogenoses and aglycogenoses), diabetes mellitus.

Glycolysis and Its Regulation.  

1. Main stages of glycolysis.
2. Enzymes involved in glycolysis and its regulation.
3. Pyruvate kinase deficiency – hemolytic anemia, diagnostic significance of changes in LDH levels in the blood.

Gluconeogenesis.  

1. Processes of gluconeogenesis.
2. Stages of gluconeogenesis.
3. Allosteric mechanisms of gluconeogenesis regulation.
4. Causes of galactosemia and diabetes mellitus.

Glucose Catabolism.  

1. Glucose catabolism.
2. Aerobic glucose breakdown and its physiological significance.
3. Anaerobic glucose breakdown (glycolysis).
4. Apotomic pathway of glucose degradation.
5. Stages of glucose metabolism.

Fructose and Galactose Metabolism.  

1. Fructose metabolism, hereditary fructose intolerance in children.
2. Galactose metabolism, hereditary galactosemia.
3. Blood sugar regulation and its relationship with age.
4. Glycoproteins and proteoglycans: study of their carbohydrate fragments.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway.  

1. Significance of the pentose phosphate pathway in metabolic processes.
2. Main stages of the pentose phosphate pathway.
3. Diseases causing alterations in the pentose phosphate pathway (Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome, NADPH oxidase deficiency).

Maintenance of Blood Glucose Levels.  

1. Main processes of glucose metabolism.
2. Regulation of blood glucose levels (role of insulin and glucagon).
3. Glucose monitoring and kinetics (glucometers, laboratory tests, and their significance).
4. Diseases affecting glucose metabolism (diabetes mellitus, hypoglycemia) and biochemical analysis.

Digestion of Dietary Triacylglycerols. Synthesis of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols.  

1. Significance of dietary triacylglycerols for the body.
2. Process of triacylglycerol digestion.
3. Fat digestion in the stomach and duodenum.
4. Emulsification and absorption of triacylglycerols and diffusion-based absorption of fatty acids.
5. Relationship of triacylglycerols and fatty acids with metabolic disorders (hypercholesterolemia, metabolic syndrome).

Formation of Triacylglycerol Stores in Adipose Tissue. Cholesterol and Bile Salt Metabolism. Fate of Adipose Triacylglycerols. Fatty Acid Oxidation. Synthesis and Utilization of Ketone Bodies.  

1. Formation of triacylglycerol stores in adipose tissue.
2. Cholesterol metabolism and utilization, cholesterol esterification, and the role of cholesterol esters.
3. Mobilization of triacylglycerols from adipose tissue.
4. Lipolysis process: breakdown of triacylglycerols into fatty acids and release of fatty acids into the bloodstream.

Metabolism of Phospholipids and Sphingolipids. Eicosanoid Metabolism. Ethanol Metabolism.  

1. Conversion of phosphatidylserine to phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine.
2. Metabolism and signaling of phosphatidylinositol.
3. Role of sphingomyelin, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and sphingolipids in neurological function.
4. The role of eicosanoids as mediators and clinical conditions related to anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., NSAIDs).

Protein Digestion and Amino Acid Absorption. Addition and Removal of Nitrogen (Deamination, Transamination). Urea Cycle.  

1. Protein digestion in the stomach and small intestine. Breakdown of polypeptides into amino acids.
2. Absorption of amino acids and dipeptides in the small intestine. Mechanisms of absorption: Na⁺- dependent active transport, passive diffusion.
3. Entry of amino acids into the bloodstream, types and functions of amino acid transporters.
4. Deamination process and its role in the liver and other tissues.
5. Transamination process: nitrogen exchange between amino acids and keto acids.
6. Regulation of the urea cycle.
7. Diseases related to protein deficiency and genetic disorders: phenylketonuria, alkaptonuria, urea cycle disorders, liver diseases, and alterations in blood urea levels.

Biochemistry of Blood. Composition and Functions of Blood. Plasma Proteins. Blood Lipoproteins.  

1. Main functions of blood and chemical composition of plasma.
2. Plasma proteins and enzymes. Acute-phase proteins. Role of albumin in water distribution and the mechanism of edema formation.
3. Hematopoiesis, characteristics of bone marrow cells. Erythrocyte maturation and heme synthesis, its regulation. Specific metabolic processes in erythrocytes.
4. Hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin.
5. Disorders of plasma proteins: hypoproteinemia, dysproteinemia, paraproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia.

Biochemistry of Blood. Composition and Functions of Blood. Plasma Proteins. Blood Lipoproteins.  

1. Main functions of blood and chemical composition of plasma.
2. Plasma proteins and enzymes. Acute-phase proteins. Role of albumin in water distribution and the mechanism of edema formation.
3. Hematopoiesis, characteristics of bone marrow cells. Erythrocyte maturation and heme synthesis, their regulation. Specific metabolic processes in erythrocytes.
4. Hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin.
5. Disorders of plasma proteins: hypoproteinemia, dysproteinemia, paraproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia.

Biochemistry of Connective Tissue. Biochemistry of the Heart and Muscles.  

1. Extracellular matrix: composition and functions.
2. Features of the amino acid composition, primary and tertiary structure of collagen.
3. Formation of collagen fibers. Collagen catabolism and regulation of its metabolism. Diseases related to impaired collagen synthesis and maturation. Elastin: structure, synthesis, and catabolism.
4. Unique features and differences in the structure of cardiomyocytes and vascular smooth muscles; major proteins and molecular structure of myofibrils.
5. Biochemical mechanisms of contraction and relaxation in cardiomyocytes and vascular smooth muscles; their differences and the energy-consuming nature of these processes.
6. Muscle extractive substances and specifics of energy metabolism in muscles.
7. Normal metabolic, physiological, and regulatory processes of cardiac muscle.
8. Diagnostic significance of cardio-selective proteins and enzymes. Creatine phosphate. Causes and Treatment of Creatinuria in Children.

Biochemistry of the Gastrointestinal Tract.  

1. Composition and functions of saliva.
2. Biochemical basis of taste perception. Biochemical regulation of appetite and hunger.
3. Mechanism of hydrochloric acid synthesis, composition and significance of gastric juice. Pancreas: composition and function of pancreatic juice.
4. Composition and functions of intestinal fluid. Breakdown products of organic substances in the intestine, absorption of water and salts, and related disorders (acute pancreatitis, gastritis, enteritis, colitis, and bulbitis).

Biochemistry of the Liver. Detoxification of Toxic Substances in the Liver.  

1. Role of the liver in carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and amino acid metabolism and its function in aging.
2. Heme metabolism, jaundice, and its types.
3. Liver damage syndromes: cytolytic, cholestatic, mesenchymal-inflammatory, hepatocellular insufficiency syndromes, liver cirrhosis.
4. Mechanisms of detoxification of toxic substances: microsomal oxidation, conjugation reactions.
5. Age-related features of normal detoxification of metabolites, hormones, and other substances in the liver.
6. Biotransformation of drugs and factors affecting it.
7. Ethanol detoxification in the liver and the impact of synthetic drugs on hepatocytes.

Physiologically Active Substances. Tetrahydrofolate, Vitamin B12, and S-Adenosylmethionine. Special Substances Derived from Amino Acids.  

1. Classification of physiologically active substances.
2. Peptide-based physiologically active substances (cytokines, growth factors, etc.).
3. Amino acid derivatives and their functions. General aspects of regulation and hierarchy of regulatory systems.

Biochemistry of the Endocrine System.  

1. Interrelationship between the endocrine and nervous systems.
2. Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, endocrine hormones, paracrine and autocrine hormones.
3. Changes in hormone concentrations in the blood. Hormone synthesis, transport, and metabolism.
4. Alterations in the endocrine system in pathological conditions. Hereditary/congenital metabolic disorders (e.g., adrenal cortex hyperplasia, diabetes mellitus). Disruptions of metabolic processes.
5. Molecular mechanisms of endemic bubonic plague development and methods of prevention.

Hormone Level Control. Effects of Specific Hormones. Regulation of Metabolism and Its Disorders.  

1. Hormonal regulation of carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism and its age-related effects.
2. Correction of calcium-phosphate metabolism disorders; causes of rickets in children.
3. Regulation of water-salt balance and its age dependency.
4. Local-acting hormones.
5. Thyroid hormones and the effects of their deficiency on growth and development (myxedema in adults, cretinism in young children, hypothyroidism).

Introduction to Metabolism. Energy Sources and Food Components. Satiety, Hunger, Prolonged Starvation.  

1. Energy sources and food components.
2. Essential and non-essential food components.
3. Nutritional status of the body: satiety, hunger, and prolonged starvation.

Acids, Bases, Buffers.  

1. Buffer systems and their significance in the body. Homeostasis.
2. General chemical properties of acids and bases.
3. Effects of acids and bases on various biological processes (e.g., enzyme activity, digestion, nerve impulse transmission).
4. Acid-base balance and clinical conditions. Acidosis and Alkalosis: Causes, Types, and Clinical Manifestations. Methods for restoring acid-base balance and treatment strategies.

Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds. Protein Structure. Enzymes.  

1. Amino acids and peptide bonds.
2. General features of protein structure.
3. Structure of the hormone insulin and its significance in the body.
4. Structure of enzymes and their role in the body.
5. Diabetes mellitus.

Testing α-Amylase Activity in Saliva.

Measurement of Blood Glucose Levels Using a Glucometer and Enzymatic Method with a Biochemical Analyzer.

Determination of Blood Cholesterol Levels Using an Enzymatic Method on a Biochemical Analyzer.

Determination of Aminotransferase Activity in Blood Using a Biochemical Analyzer.

Determination of Albumin Levels in Blood Plasma Using a Biochemical Analyzer.

Determination of Normal and Pathological Components of Urine Using Test Strips

Protein Dialysis

Conducting Biochemical Studies Using the PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Method. Diagnostic Significance.

Determination of Succinate Dehydrogenase Activity in Muscles

Determination of Lactic Acid Produced During Anaerobic Carbohydrate Breakdown

Signal Transmission Across Membranes. The Role of Membrane Disorders in the Pathogenesis of Disease Processes.

Regulation of Energy Metabolism

Mitochondrial Diseases. Hypoenergetic Conditions

Glycogen Storage Diseases

Structure, Specificity, and Clinical Significance of Glucose Transporters

Disorders of Fat Digestion in Chronic Hepatitis and Cholecystitis.

α- and ω-Oxidation of Fatty Acids: Significance and Disorders.

Changes in Heteropolysaccharides During Ontogenesis and in Diseases.

Lipid Peroxidation and Its Role in the Pathogenesis of Cell Damage.

Apoproteins Involved in Cholesterol Transport. Obesity. Sphingolipidoses.

Ketonuria and Ketonaemia in Diabetes and Starvation.

Clinical Significance of Gastric Juice Diagnostics.

Parenteral Nutrition and Its Clinical Significance.

Biochemical Basis for the Development and Treatment of Acute Pancreatitis.

Cathepsins and Their Clinical Significance.

Biosynthesis, Function, and Disorders of Neurotransmitters.

Folic Acid Deficiency. Mechanism of the Bacteriostatic Action of Sulfonamide Drugs.

Formation and Treatment of Uric Acid Stones in the Kidneys.

Kallikrein-Kinin System and Its Clinical Significance.

Use of Recombinant DNA in Medicine.

Detoxification of Hormones in the Liver and Its Clinical Significance.

Biochemical Basis of the Development and Complications of Metabolic Syndrome.

Pathogenesis and Treatment of Endemic Goiter and Hypothyroidism.

Features of Leukocyte Metabolism.

Hereditary and Acquired Platelet Disorders (Thrombocytopathies).

Types and Causes of Anemia.

Congenital Disorders of Coagulation Factors.

Origin and Biochemical Diagnosis of Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis.

Collagen Disorders: Pathogenesis and Diagnosis.

Gene Expression Control and Cell Differentiation.

Ж.Мамажонов - Associate Professor of the Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacy, KUAB, --ilmiy darajasini kiriting, masalan, t.f.f.d (PhD) (bor bo'lsa)--

К.Убайдуллаев - PhD, Старший преподаватель кафедры Биологическая химия Андижанского государственного медицинского университета , --ilmiy darajasini kiriting, masalan, t.f.f.d (PhD) (bor bo'lsa)--